Digital Audio Glossary

ADC - This stands for Analogue to Digital Converter/Conversion. This is a device and a process that converts recorded analogue data into digital data which enables it to be used and altered on a computer using a music software such as Logic, Reason ect. Converting analogue to digital data makes the recorded data clearer.
Alias Frequency - These frequencies are always apparent when one converts analogue to digital. They are also known as sidebands. However, through manipulating the sample rate in accordance to the frequency of the audio one wants to record, these sideband frequencies will not be heard.
Binary - This is the number system that computers use to read digital data. It is also known as base 2.
Bit Depth - This determines the dynamic range of recordings. Ultimately describes the number of 'bits' recorded for each sample. The higher the bit depth, the more frequencies one will be able to hear in the recording (high and low frequencies).
Clipping - This occurs when an amplifier/speaker tries to output a voltage too high. This causes distortion of the data being transmitted.
DAC - This stands for Digital to Analogue Converter/Conversion. This is the reverse process of ADC and can be done through the use of the same device.
dBFS - This is the measurement of Digital data. 0dBFS, is the maximum volume.
Dither - This is an intentionally recorded noise (atmospheric,white noise) which enables recorded sounds of a lower frequency to be heard.
Digital audio interface - This translates binary information into audio so that one can hear it. Most computers have this built in and the better it is - the better the sound quality as its sample rate is higher and captures more information.
Digital effects processor - These were designed to be used by DJ's to change the sound of the songs they were playing. However, recently Effects processors are now used in studios on pre-recorded sounds. Effects that a Digital effects processor may have vary, depending on the manufacturer. However, the most common are reverb, delay, flange, filtering and limiting.
Digital mixing console - An electronic device for changing the dynamics of recorded sounds. These are most commonly used in recording studios.
Sample rate - This is used to convert analogue into digital data using the base 2 number system. The sample rate takes samples of data in order re produce the audio waves in another form (digital/analogue).It is measured in Hz/KHz.

The functions of a keyboard

The functions of a keyboard

Keyboards are arguably the most used instrument in the music industry as its functions are vast. Keyboards can be used from live performances to recording midi data onto a software. There are also many different types of keyboard that are specialised for these different functions.

Three main uses for a keyboard are in a solo performance; in a band or to record MIDI data onto a music software (Logic,FL,Reason ect). A keyboard in a solo performance would have to provide melody and harmony as there arent any other instruments to provide one or the other. This would mean the use of the keyboard is more sparse as there is a lot to be done at once – such as comping chords along side a melody, or playing bass notes. However, a keyboard that is used in a live performance with a band would usually be doing only one thing, such as playing chords alongside the bass/guitar player or playing a melody to accompany a rhythm guitarist.

A MIDI keyboard can be used to record midi data onto a software. On the software the instrument can be changed – or it can be changed on the actual keyboard. Some keyboards have a pitch bend that can alter the pitch of the notes played. This gives the keyboard more diversity as it alters the pitch of a note instead of actually pressing another note. On some keyboard effects such as delay can be added to the note - instead of having to do it on the software that one would be using when recording. However this may not be useful if a there are many parts of the song to be pitch bent. Therefore, in this case one would alter what they have record on the keyboard, on the music software that it has been transferred to as MIDI data. This can also be done for effects - also, softwares can have other/downloaded plugins which have distortion,delay,EQ and reverb to add effects on the MIDI data.  Some keyboard have touch sensitivy which would alter the velocity of the recorded data. This may not be wanted as a function of a MIDI Keyboard as one would often edit their recorded data on the software that they use. Also, some may want their recorded data to sound the same.

The Sound and Music Industry

Areas of the industry             

Record Companies:

There are 3 different types of record companies: major (mainstream), independent and subsidiary (a label that is owned by a major record company that specialises in a specific genre). These different types of label work similarly – they have A+R’s who find the talent; the Label then offer the artist an allowance of money in order to pay for the production of their music by paying for a studio, producer and on top of that, living costs(however, in different labels there are different terms and deals) . The record label makes this allowance back by recouping it through record, merchandise and ticket sales. Major labels have artists who perform and produce many different genres. Where as indie labels major in one specific genre of music. Subsidiary labels started off as independent labels; they then got bought out by major record labels. For example, when Def Jam was bought out by Island, then Island being bought out by Universal. Record companies provide artists with producers, engineers, pluggers, agents and managers so their artists can become recognised and be managed under their rules. Record labels main role is to deal with the distribution and production of music – and also the social reputation of their artists by getting them agents to organise tours abroad to spread their music personally around the world in order to build their fan base. However, depending on the deal, their services vary. For example, a licensing deal would be given if an artist has already recorded their tracks, as the record company will just have to pay for manufacture and distribution.

Considering the fact that people now stream and download their music for free online – record sales have decreased, which ultimately leaves record companies – in my opinion – useless as their distribution of music to make an income for a new artist would be low. However, they do generate profit from organising live performances, manufacturing and selling merchandise. On the other hand, this could be organised single handed. Due to low record sales – a 360 deal has been introduced which allows the record company to take a percentage of every aspects of the artists’ income in order to recoup the allowance given to them.  

The cons of being under a label usually is the fact that a label gets a lot of say as some artist who sign their rights over to a label get told how to dress and how their music should sound. An example of a label that did this was Motown. However, the pros of being under a label would be the support an artist would have as labels have a lot of contacts and deals that are not music related can be made - such as advertising, which is where a lot of artists make an income.                                                                                                                   Artist management:

The artists manager will be the brains of the operation, as he/she will be the one organising deals with other individuals, record companies or publishing companies. The manager too should have a business head and be able to the advise the artist accordingly – whether that be how to promote themselves, what deals to sign to, keeping the artists income balance, setting a career plan and striving to achieve the goals set and tending to the artists personal needs. Although a manager does all of these jobs – he/she does not have to look for employment for the artist – only hire the right people to do so. Also, the manager does not produce the artists music for them, they hire a studio and producer for the artist. The manager and the artist, before working with each other, must negotiate the percentage the manager gets out of the artists income. I personally believe the business deal between artist and manager is the best deal that can be formed in the music industry as for the manager to inherit a high salary they must work their hardest to ensure their artist gets an even higher income. This deal is the securest deal as both parts will be willing to make a successful career by using each other equally. Mangers and artists should have a good personal relationship as a manager and artist contract lasts for 3 years and during that time they will have to work close together. In my opinion, I believe having an artist manager would save an artist a lot of time and stress. It would also allow them to fully focus on their music – for example, live performance as this is where most of their income can be made and if they are a successful performer they will bring in larger crowds which means more ticket sales. However, some managers are issued to artists by record companies and follow the record labels instructions on what to do for the artist.

Music publishing:

Music publishing is when a publishing company exploit the copyrighted music that they have been given by an artist, by issuing a music publishing agreement with other companies for money. If the artist has publishing rights they get a percentage of the money made as they wrote the song – and the publishing company get a share as they distributed it to make and income of of it. In the contract between the artist and publishing company, it states the allowance that the artist will receive – the percentage the company get from their record distributions. Like most record companies, the advance is recoupable and the artist will not recieve their royalties until all of the money is paid back. Music publishing is, personally, one of the best ways for an artist to start getting recognised and making an income for themselves before signing to a major/indie label. Music publishers keep track of when and where an artists music is being played and collects the rights for every time it is. There are many different rights that music publishers control the main one being PPR. Without a music publisher it would be impossible to keep track of details such as this, which would cost the artist to miss out on a lot of their income. However, like a manager, If an artist has the experience of dealing with the business side of the music industry, then signing to a music publisher would not be needed, and would save them money.

Live performance:

Live performance, in my opinion, is the biggest aspect of the music industry as this is where artists make a name for themselves. This is also where artists are found by A+R’S who work for record companies. Live performance allows the artist to build their fan base and connect in person with their fans by performing their songs to them – not to be put onto a CD or bounced down into an MP3 or heard through another source. To a certain degree, where an artist performs determines how successful they are in their career as certain places, such as Maddison Square Gardens, in New York, would only be where the really famous and successful perform. Nowadays live performance, involving tours, is the best way to make an income as ticket sales can be up to the equivalent of over 3 record sales (if you are just starting out).

                                                                                                                                                                 In conclusion, these 4 areas of the music industry link very closely. Managers provide the business means for an artist to organise live performances which can then lead to getting signed to a label by being noticed by an A+R who works for one. Music publishing companies and record companies link closely, however in roles – as record companies would too keep tabs on where/when their artists songs are being played – and they recoup the money for them. Publishing companies are most useful to an artist who is independent and needs extra help, alongside their manager, with the business side of the industry.