Digital Audio Glossary

ADC - This stands for Analogue to Digital Converter/Conversion. This is a device and a process that converts recorded analogue data into digital data which enables it to be used and altered on a computer using a music software such as Logic, Reason ect. Converting analogue to digital data makes the recorded data clearer.
Alias Frequency - These frequencies are always apparent when one converts analogue to digital. They are also known as sidebands. However, through manipulating the sample rate in accordance to the frequency of the audio one wants to record, these sideband frequencies will not be heard.
Binary - This is the number system that computers use to read digital data. It is also known as base 2.
Bit Depth - This determines the dynamic range of recordings. Ultimately describes the number of 'bits' recorded for each sample. The higher the bit depth, the more frequencies one will be able to hear in the recording (high and low frequencies).
Clipping - This occurs when an amplifier/speaker tries to output a voltage too high. This causes distortion of the data being transmitted.
DAC - This stands for Digital to Analogue Converter/Conversion. This is the reverse process of ADC and can be done through the use of the same device.
dBFS - This is the measurement of Digital data. 0dBFS, is the maximum volume.
Dither - This is an intentionally recorded noise (atmospheric,white noise) which enables recorded sounds of a lower frequency to be heard.
Digital audio interface - This translates binary information into audio so that one can hear it. Most computers have this built in and the better it is - the better the sound quality as its sample rate is higher and captures more information.
Digital effects processor - These were designed to be used by DJ's to change the sound of the songs they were playing. However, recently Effects processors are now used in studios on pre-recorded sounds. Effects that a Digital effects processor may have vary, depending on the manufacturer. However, the most common are reverb, delay, flange, filtering and limiting.
Digital mixing console - An electronic device for changing the dynamics of recorded sounds. These are most commonly used in recording studios.
Sample rate - This is used to convert analogue into digital data using the base 2 number system. The sample rate takes samples of data in order re produce the audio waves in another form (digital/analogue).It is measured in Hz/KHz.

The functions of a keyboard

The functions of a keyboard

Keyboards are arguably the most used instrument in the music industry as its functions are vast. Keyboards can be used from live performances to recording midi data onto a software. There are also many different types of keyboard that are specialised for these different functions.

Three main uses for a keyboard are in a solo performance; in a band or to record MIDI data onto a music software (Logic,FL,Reason ect). A keyboard in a solo performance would have to provide melody and harmony as there arent any other instruments to provide one or the other. This would mean the use of the keyboard is more sparse as there is a lot to be done at once – such as comping chords along side a melody, or playing bass notes. However, a keyboard that is used in a live performance with a band would usually be doing only one thing, such as playing chords alongside the bass/guitar player or playing a melody to accompany a rhythm guitarist.

A MIDI keyboard can be used to record midi data onto a software. On the software the instrument can be changed – or it can be changed on the actual keyboard. Some keyboards have a pitch bend that can alter the pitch of the notes played. This gives the keyboard more diversity as it alters the pitch of a note instead of actually pressing another note. On some keyboard effects such as delay can be added to the note - instead of having to do it on the software that one would be using when recording. However this may not be useful if a there are many parts of the song to be pitch bent. Therefore, in this case one would alter what they have record on the keyboard, on the music software that it has been transferred to as MIDI data. This can also be done for effects - also, softwares can have other/downloaded plugins which have distortion,delay,EQ and reverb to add effects on the MIDI data.  Some keyboard have touch sensitivy which would alter the velocity of the recorded data. This may not be wanted as a function of a MIDI Keyboard as one would often edit their recorded data on the software that they use. Also, some may want their recorded data to sound the same.

The Sound and Music Industry

Areas of the industry             

Record Companies:

There are 3 different types of record companies: major (mainstream), independent and subsidiary (a label that is owned by a major record company that specialises in a specific genre). These different types of label work similarly – they have A+R’s who find the talent; the Label then offer the artist an allowance of money in order to pay for the production of their music by paying for a studio, producer and on top of that, living costs(however, in different labels there are different terms and deals) . The record label makes this allowance back by recouping it through record, merchandise and ticket sales. Major labels have artists who perform and produce many different genres. Where as indie labels major in one specific genre of music. Subsidiary labels started off as independent labels; they then got bought out by major record labels. For example, when Def Jam was bought out by Island, then Island being bought out by Universal. Record companies provide artists with producers, engineers, pluggers, agents and managers so their artists can become recognised and be managed under their rules. Record labels main role is to deal with the distribution and production of music – and also the social reputation of their artists by getting them agents to organise tours abroad to spread their music personally around the world in order to build their fan base. However, depending on the deal, their services vary. For example, a licensing deal would be given if an artist has already recorded their tracks, as the record company will just have to pay for manufacture and distribution.

Considering the fact that people now stream and download their music for free online – record sales have decreased, which ultimately leaves record companies – in my opinion – useless as their distribution of music to make an income for a new artist would be low. However, they do generate profit from organising live performances, manufacturing and selling merchandise. On the other hand, this could be organised single handed. Due to low record sales – a 360 deal has been introduced which allows the record company to take a percentage of every aspects of the artists’ income in order to recoup the allowance given to them.  

The cons of being under a label usually is the fact that a label gets a lot of say as some artist who sign their rights over to a label get told how to dress and how their music should sound. An example of a label that did this was Motown. However, the pros of being under a label would be the support an artist would have as labels have a lot of contacts and deals that are not music related can be made - such as advertising, which is where a lot of artists make an income.                                                                                                                   Artist management:

The artists manager will be the brains of the operation, as he/she will be the one organising deals with other individuals, record companies or publishing companies. The manager too should have a business head and be able to the advise the artist accordingly – whether that be how to promote themselves, what deals to sign to, keeping the artists income balance, setting a career plan and striving to achieve the goals set and tending to the artists personal needs. Although a manager does all of these jobs – he/she does not have to look for employment for the artist – only hire the right people to do so. Also, the manager does not produce the artists music for them, they hire a studio and producer for the artist. The manager and the artist, before working with each other, must negotiate the percentage the manager gets out of the artists income. I personally believe the business deal between artist and manager is the best deal that can be formed in the music industry as for the manager to inherit a high salary they must work their hardest to ensure their artist gets an even higher income. This deal is the securest deal as both parts will be willing to make a successful career by using each other equally. Mangers and artists should have a good personal relationship as a manager and artist contract lasts for 3 years and during that time they will have to work close together. In my opinion, I believe having an artist manager would save an artist a lot of time and stress. It would also allow them to fully focus on their music – for example, live performance as this is where most of their income can be made and if they are a successful performer they will bring in larger crowds which means more ticket sales. However, some managers are issued to artists by record companies and follow the record labels instructions on what to do for the artist.

Music publishing:

Music publishing is when a publishing company exploit the copyrighted music that they have been given by an artist, by issuing a music publishing agreement with other companies for money. If the artist has publishing rights they get a percentage of the money made as they wrote the song – and the publishing company get a share as they distributed it to make and income of of it. In the contract between the artist and publishing company, it states the allowance that the artist will receive – the percentage the company get from their record distributions. Like most record companies, the advance is recoupable and the artist will not recieve their royalties until all of the money is paid back. Music publishing is, personally, one of the best ways for an artist to start getting recognised and making an income for themselves before signing to a major/indie label. Music publishers keep track of when and where an artists music is being played and collects the rights for every time it is. There are many different rights that music publishers control the main one being PPR. Without a music publisher it would be impossible to keep track of details such as this, which would cost the artist to miss out on a lot of their income. However, like a manager, If an artist has the experience of dealing with the business side of the music industry, then signing to a music publisher would not be needed, and would save them money.

Live performance:

Live performance, in my opinion, is the biggest aspect of the music industry as this is where artists make a name for themselves. This is also where artists are found by A+R’S who work for record companies. Live performance allows the artist to build their fan base and connect in person with their fans by performing their songs to them – not to be put onto a CD or bounced down into an MP3 or heard through another source. To a certain degree, where an artist performs determines how successful they are in their career as certain places, such as Maddison Square Gardens, in New York, would only be where the really famous and successful perform. Nowadays live performance, involving tours, is the best way to make an income as ticket sales can be up to the equivalent of over 3 record sales (if you are just starting out).

                                                                                                                                                                 In conclusion, these 4 areas of the music industry link very closely. Managers provide the business means for an artist to organise live performances which can then lead to getting signed to a label by being noticed by an A+R who works for one. Music publishing companies and record companies link closely, however in roles – as record companies would too keep tabs on where/when their artists songs are being played – and they recoup the money for them. Publishing companies are most useful to an artist who is independent and needs extra help, alongside their manager, with the business side of the industry.  

The History of DJ Equipment

There are many types of DJ, the most common being a radio DJ and a Club DJ. The first DJ was a radio DJ called Ray Newby who used a spark transmitter to generate radio waves in 1909. In 1877 Thomas Edison invented the Phonograph which was a device that could record and re-play the recorded sound. However, Emile Berliners invention which enabled people to record sound onto a flat disc dominated the market as it was easier and cheaper to mass produce. This then lead to his invention of the Gramophone dominating the market in 1894 after the first model was built in 1888. After years of development it has turned into the Turntable.

Timeline

1930 -1950’s:

From 1920, up until 1930, British dance band was the main genre of music played by DJ’s. The whiskey go-go, the first commercial club, opened in Paris in 1947 – this could be considered the start of Club DJing culture as clubs then started to only play pre-recorded music. In 1948 LP’s were invented which enabled more audio data to be recorded on the slower rotating disc. In the early 1950’s radio DJ’s would be hired to play at parties to impersonate the role of a juke box by playing current music. As there were breaks between songs, a drummer would also be hired to fill in the gaps and keep people on the dance floor. In 1955 Bob Casey brought the two-turntable system to the US which sped up the process of changing between two songs, instead of having to flip the vinyl, the track was ready on a parallel turntable. During the late 1950’s PA systems were developed in Jamaica which led to huge block parties, where multiple DJ’s would perform pre-recorded music live to an audience.

1960’s:

In the mid 60’s clubs became rife and new specialized DJ equipment was made to ensure clubbers with music all of the time. For example, when Rudy Bozaks CMA-10-2DL mixer was invented it enabled Club DJs to smoothly transition from song to song without having a gap that had to be filled by hiring a drummer like in the early 1950’s. The smooth transition from song to song was done by using a cross fader on the mixer, which over time had to be developed to be stronger as techniques such as beat juggling – going between two tracks – became more competitive and DJs began doing it faster and faster which lead to many broken cross faders. This also encouraged DJs develop a new technique called ‘Beat-matching’ which allowed them to match 2 songs with different tempos. By 1968 clubs had died down, and those that were still running only featured live bands. This then brought up the era of block parties in Europe and boroughs of New York such as the Bronx where famous DJ’s such as Kool Herc performed.

1970’s:

In the early 70’s the technique of turntablism started because in Disco music there are two sections (Melodic and the break beat), and people would dance the most to the break beat so Kool Herc used two of the same records and played the same break beat between them to extend the time. In the mid 70’s whilst Disco became mainstream – Hip hop music and culture was growing. In 1975, hip hop DJ Grand Wizard Theodore invented the scratching technique by accident as he was talking to his mum and he held the vinyl still and as he moved it he noticed it made a rhythmic noise. This then enabled DJs to make pre-recorded music even more their own, by adding rhythmic scratching fills over the track.

1980’s:

In the early 80s House music emerged from Chicago thanks to Frankie Knuckles who started it off by mixing old disco songs with eurosynth pop. In the mid 80s wedding and party entertainment changed from having a live band to having a DJ. This then encouraged some to start up DJ companies.  Mobile DJs would bring their whole System - (Turntables, records, PA system) - to the events that were performing at, like a live band would their instruments. This could be said to be when DJing became an actual musical art form as it was performed live and techniques were used to make the music played, their own.

1990’s - Present:

Although invented in the mid 70s, CDs became big in the market during the early 90s and outnumbered the amount of sales the gramophone got which then slowed down its production rate. The first mp3 played was released in 1998 – the Eiger Labs MPMan F10. Final scratch was a DJ tool created by N2IT, which enabled DJs to control mp3 audio files through time-coded vinyl or CDs. This is the digital DJ setup which is currently more popular than using vinyl as it is, personally, much easier to manage and use.

DJ Equipment development:

When two DJ turntables began being used – it became the main set up for all DJ’s, whether they used vinyl or digital as it enabled every DJ technique known to be performed. When the Technics SL1200 was invented in 1972 – it became popular with DJ’s as it enabled them to match beats with different tempos more effectively because it had quartz rotation and a pitch control. Original turntables consisted of just the Platter (where the record sits and spins), Tonearm (where the needle is held) and the motor. The platter has been developed to take more impact  as new techniques of  DJ’ing such as scratching need to support the extra weight of ones hand. Tone arms and needles have also been developed by strengthening them as scratching used to break the needles very easily and the tonearm would move out of position from the grooves of the record. Motors in turntables used to be AC, although an AC motor has been said to be better due to the fact that it lasts longer and are well built – people have started to use DC motors because they are smaller and cheaper.

DJ setups have changed over the years. For example Dj Craze, in his 1999 DMC Final – he used 2 vinyl turntables and a mixer. However at VEMF in 2012, he used 2 turntables that were linked to a Laptop and instead of using vinyl’s he used tracktor to play his music. On the side, he used a drum machine to play his own rhythms over the songs he was Djing. This could be considered modern turntablism as he uses the pre recorded music and makes new beats over it. Likewise, In 1997 David Rodigan used vinyl turntables, mixer and a microphone to perform his sets. By using a microphone he engages with the crowd and becomes his own hype man. The fact that not many DJ’s use microphones is that using a mic to talk over the tracks would make the DJ a selector – as David Rodigan is known for.  In 2005 David Rodigan was still using the same set up in a DJ battle against Tony Matterhorn. However in the 2012 carnival, David Rodigans setup changed dramatically as he now uses a digital setup that consists of  time coded turntables – a mixer and a laptop with Traktor running to play his tracks.

In conclusion, I personally prefer the digital DJ setup as it allows newer music to be performed as music of this era would not be pressed onto vinyl. Also, there are more possibilities to excel in a set as a digital turntable has cue buttons which skip the track to a selected point, and a sync button that automatically beat matches the two different tracks which would enable the DJ to focus more on techniques such as turntablism. It also does not have a tone arm or needle which makes scratching – to add rhythm – much easier to do. Although vinyl turntables have a more authentic sound – Digital turntables provide a crisp and clear sound. Also, attaching a laptop to a DJ setup can allow the DJ to control visuals, lighting and smoke effects which would make the whole performance more engaging which is what DJ Andy C has done. With a digital setup, the components are much stronger and would last longer than an analogue set up. Whereas, using vinyl turntables would cost more expense as one would have to buy the needles – and if they scratch a lot that will become pricey. Also, vinyl is expensive to buy. The fact that a DJ would have to carry a box of vinyl to each of their gigs would be exhausting, however if a digital setup was used, all of the music needed would be on a laptop. Mixers for digital setups enable the DJ to control a vast range of the music as effects such as EQ and delay can be added. The gain and pitch of a track can too be altered which ultimately changes the original sound of the song instantly.

Hear and identify

The worse version of the song is badly recorded both musically and technically. At the beginning of the song there is a recorded cough which lowers the professional standard that the recording should have. This cough can be cut out of the audio through editing the vocals.
Also, the fact that the vocalist is standing too close to the pop filter - there is popping in the recording. This muffles the vocals and makes them hard to understand. This fault can be prevented by standing a few centimeters more away from the pop filter.
The backing vocals and main singers vocals went out of time with eachother at points which created a droning mesh of vocals. This could be prevented by either rehearsing the performance better or editing the vocals to fit better together.
In the bridge section of the song - the vocals sound muffled by the music. This could too be changed by the singer singing clearer or a better edit of the song.
At the end of the song, the music cut off too soong and the vocals did not end on a perfect cadence. This made the song feel unfinished and is not a professional ending ; it could be improved by editing the music to carry on after the vocals have finished.
Overall, the music quality was poor as i could not recognise or hear any other instrument other than the piano and drums - as in the better version i could hear a sort of synth piano and bass. This could be adjusted through editing the levels of volume on each recorded track. Also, by paning the sounds into groups (instruments and vocals) , the sound may be clearer.                                                                                   In the worse version of the song, the panning of instruments in the headphones were slightly distorted as instruments were grouped together wrongly and the vocals were most affected due to this.

Unit 38: The Music Freelance World